all’s for the best in the best of all pos- sible worlds

Everything that happens does so for a good reason, and things in general cannot be any better; generally used to present an optimistic worldview:
“The administrative departments were consuming miles of red tape in the cor- rectest forms of activity, and everything was for the best in the best of all possible worlds” (George Bernard Shaw, The Shew-
ing-up of Blanco Posnet, 1911). The proverb is a translation of a line from the French writer Voltaire’s philosophical tale Candide
(1759). In The Silver Stallion (1926), James Branch Cabell made the more cynical observation: “The optimist proclaims that we live in the best of all possible worlds; and the pessimist fears this is true.”

all’s fair in love and war

Any action, however mean or unscrupulous, is per- missible in certain situations; often used to justify cheating or deception: “‘You opened the letter!’ . . . ‘How was I to read it if I hadn’t? All’s . . . fair in love and war, you know’” (Francis Edward Smedley, Frank Fairleigh, 1850). The proverb was first recorded, with different wording, in 1620. In modern use an extra word is often added to or substituted for part of the proverb, as in “All’s fair in love—an’ war—an’ politics” (George Ade, County Chairman, 1903).

all roads lead to Rome

There are many different ways to achieve the same result, or to come to the same conclusion: “All
roads lead to Rome: and even animal individuality throws a ray on human prob- lems” (J. S. Huxley, The Individual in the Animal Kingdom, 1912). The proverb was first recorded, with different word- ing, in Chaucer’s Prologue to Astrolabe (c.
1391). Compare the medieval Latin prov- erb “Mille vie ducunt hominem per secula Romam [A thousand roads lead man for- ever toward Rome].” In modern use other place-names are sometimes substituted for Rome.
Proverbs expressing similar mean- ing: there are more ways of killing a cat than choking it with cream; there’s more than one way to skin a cat.

all men are created equal

No person is born superior or inferior to another, so all should have equal rights: “Colonel Cathcart was infused with the democratic spirit: he believed that all men were cre- ated equal, and therefore spurned all men outside Group Headquarters with equal fervor” (Joseph Heller, Catch-22, 1955). The proverb comes from the Declara- tion of Independence (1776), in which Thomas Jefferson wrote: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.”
Proverbs expressing similar mean- ing: jack’s as good as his master; all animals are equal, but some are more equal than others.

all is grist that comes to the mill

Every- thing, no matter how small or unpromis- ing, can be put to use: She carried a notebook and pencil with her wherever she went—for a writer, all is grist that comes to the mill. The proverb was first recorded, with slightly different wording, in 1655. It also occurs with my, his, her, and so on in place of the and in the figurative phrase grist to the mill, as in Charles Dickens’s novel A Tale of Two Cities (1859): “The clearance was effected
at last; the Stryver arrears were hand- somely fetched up; everything was got rid of until November should come with its fogs atmospheric, and fogs legal, and bring grist to the mill again.” Grist is grain brought to a mill to be ground.
Variant of this proverb: it’s all grist for the mill.
Proverb expressing similar meaning:
all is fish that comes to the net.

all is fish that comes to the net

Anything that comes along is accepted and turned to advantage: “I don’t know that she cares for one more than the other. There are a cou- ple of young Air Force chaps too. I fancy all’s fish that comes to her net at present”
(Agatha Christie, Murder in Mesopotamia,
1936). First recorded c. 1520, the proverb is sometimes applied to a particular person by substituting my, his, her, and so on for the, as in this example.
Proverb expressing similar meaning:
all is grist that comes to the mill.

all good things must come to an end

Nothing lasts forever; often said resignedly when a pleasant experience or sequence of events finally ends: We had had a wonderful vacation, but all good things must come to an end. The proverb was first recorded c. 1440: “Ye wote wele of all thing moste be an ende” (Partonope of Blois). The word good was probably not added until the 19th or early 20th century.

all fish are not caught with flies

In some circumstances different methods must be employed to achieve a desired end: The old man grinned and said something about all fish not being caught with flies. The proverb was first recorded in 1580 by John Lyly in Euphues and his England.

all commend patience, but none can endure to suffer

It is far easier to tell somebody else to be patient than to be patient yourself: She said I should wait and see, but it was difficult to take her advice—all commend patience, but none can endure to suffer. The proverb was first recorded in
1948 in a U.S. proverb collection.

all chiefs and no Indians

See too many chiefs and not enough indians.

all commend patience, but none can endure to suffer It is far easier to tell somebody else to be patient than to be patient yourself: She said I should wait and see, but it was difficult to take her advice—all commend patience, but none can endure to suffer. The proverb was first recorded in
1948 in a U.S. proverb collection.

all cats are gray in the dark

dark People have no distinguishing features, and their appearance becomes unimportant, in the dark; sometimes used with reference to
a person’s choice of sexual partner: “You forgot that all cats are grey in the dark and so are uniformed policemen” (Jonathan Ross, Dark Blue and Dangerous, 1981). The proverb was first recorded in this form in 1596. It was used with sexual con- notations in a letter written by Benjamin Franklin in 1745: “And as in the dark all Cats are grey, the Pleasure of corporal Enjoyment with an old Woman is at least equal, and frequently superior.”
Variants of this proverb: all cats are black at night; at night all cats are gray.

all arts are brothers, each is a light to the other

other The arts should not be con- sidered as separate entities but as parts of one whole, each complementing and leading to a better understanding and appreciation of the others: Looking at a great painting can move me in the same way as listening to a fine piece of music—they say all arts are brothers. The proverb was first recorded in 1847. Variant of this proverb: all arts are
one, all branches on one tree.

all animals are equal, but some are more equal than others

In a society or orga- nization where all are supposedly equal, it is often the case that some have special privi- leges, or greater power than others: “Thus, even on the night of such personal triumph, Jason Gilbert was once again reminded that although all Harvard undergraduates are equal, some are more equal than oth- ers” (Erich Segal, The Class, 1985). Other words may be substituted for animals, as in the above quotation. The proverb comes from George Orwell’s novel Animal Farm
(1945), where it is the ultimate slogan of a supposedly egalitarian regime set up by the animals of a farm, which gradually becomes as tyrannical as the human one it replaced. Proverb expressing similar meaning:
all men are created equal.

alcohol will preserve anything but a secret

People have a tendency to talk too freely and become indiscreet when they are drunk: I hoped that he would not have too much to drink at the reception—I had told him about Kate’s pregnancy in confidence, and it’s well known that alcohol will preserve anything but a secret. The proverb is recorded as a regional expression in the United States.
Proverbs expressing similar mean- ing:drunkennessrevealswhatsoberness conceals; there’s truth in wine.

agree, for the law is costly

It is expen- sive to settle disputes in court because of the legal costs involved: “Come, agree, agree; the law’s costly” (Jonathan Swift, A Complete Collection of Polite and Ingenious Conversation, 1738). The proverb was first recorded in 1605 by William Camden in Remains Concerning Britain.

the age of miracles is past

Miracles no longer happen; used when some desirable occurrence seems highly unlikely: I didn’t expect the authorities to take any action in response to my complaint—the age of miracles is past. The proverb occurs in Shakespeare’s play All’sWell that EndsWell (2:3) in the form
“They say miracles are past,” which implies that it is of earlier origin.
Proverb expressing opposite mean- ing: wonders will never cease!

age before beauty

Older people have precedence over those who are younger and more attractive; said when standing back to let another person go first or when pushing in ahead of somebody: “Age before beauty,” she said as she stepped in front of the young woman at the head of the line. The proverb was first recorded in 1843. Face- tious retorts or extensions to the proverb include “Beauty before the beast,” “Grace before meat,” and “Pearls before swine.”

after dinner rest awhile, after supper walk a mile

mile It is best for the digestion to rest after a heavy meal and take some exercise after a light meal: “As the prov- erb says, for health sake, after dinner, or rather after supper, willingly then I’ll walk a mile to hear thee” (Philip Massinger, The Unnatural Combat, 1639). The proverb was first recorded in 1582 in a slightly differ- ent form, with talk in place of rest.
Variant of this proverb: after dinner sit awhile, after supper walk a mile.

after death the doctor

Help sometimes comes too late: “All his tricks founder, and he brings his physic/After his patient’s death: the King already/Hath married the fair lady”
(William Shakespeare, Henry VIII, 3:2). The proverb was first recorded c. 1385–90 by Geoffrey Chaucer in Troilus and Criseyde.

AFRICAN PROVERBS

Every African country has its heritage of sayings and proverbs. Some are known throughout the continent, while others are unique to particular countries. The following list includes some of the most colorful examples, many of them inspired by the wildlife and landscape of Africa.

The best trees grow on the steepest hills
By trying often, the monkey learns to jump from the tree
Do not blame God for having created the tiger, but thank him for not giving it wings
Even if the elephant is thin he is still the lord of the jungle
Even the best cooking pot will not produce food
Every beast roars in its own den
Fear is no obstacle to death
Goats cannot live in a herd of leopards
He on whose head we would break a coconut never stands still
The horizon will not disappear as you run towards it
Hunt in every jungle, for there is wisdom and good hunting in all of them
If there were no elephants in the jungle, the buffalo would be big
If they are offered winged ants, people will eat them
If you have escaped the jaws of the crocodile while bathing in the river, you will surely meet a leopard on the way
If you have five wives, then you have five tongues
Rain does not fall on one roof alone
The smaller the lizard the greater the hope of becoming a crocodile
The viper assumes the colors of his surroundings
When you chop off a snake’s head all you are left with is a piece of rope
Where the cattle stand together, the lion lies down hungry
Where there is no wealth there is no poverty

after a storm comes a calm

A period of anger or trouble is usually followed by a period of relative peace: “After a storm comes a calm. Wearied with a for-
mer blustering they began now to repose themselves in a sad silence” (Thomas Fuller, Church History of Britain, 1655).The proverb was first recorded in this form in 1582, but the sentiment it expresses is found in writing more than 200 years ear- lier. It has given rise to the cliché the calm before the storm, which reverses the order of things and describes a period of peace before an upheaval.
Proverbs expressing similar mean- ing: the darkest hour is just before

dawn; when things are at the worst
they begin to mend.

adversity makes strange bedfellows

bedfellows In times of hardship or misfortune people often befriend or form alliances with those whose company they would normally avoid: The merger of the two companies surprised every- body, but these are hard times for the industry and adversity makes strange bedfellows. The proverb was first recorded in Shakespeare’s play The Tempest (2:2) in the form “Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellows.”
Variants of this proverb: misery makes strange bedfellows; poverty makes strange bedfellows.

adventures are to the adventurous

Those who are not bold, and who take no risks, will not have exciting lives or achieve spectacular things: “He told himself that adventure was to the adven- turous. . . . If he could not make the effort for the small he would miss the big adventure” (Thomas Hinde, Mr. Nicholas,
1952). The proverb was first recorded in
Benjamin Disraeli’s Coningsby (1844).

admiration is the daughter of ignorance

People often admire others about whom they only have incomplete knowledge: The president’s current popularity only proves the rule that admiration is the daughter of ignorance. This U.S. proverb was first recorded in 1733–58 by Benjamin Frank- lin in Poor Richard’s Almanack.
Proverb expressing similar meaning: what the eye doesn’t see, the heart doesn’t grieve over.
Proverb expressing opposite mean- ing: prejudice is the daughter of igno- rance.

action without thought is like shooting without aim

without thought is like shooting without aim Think before you act in order to achieve the best results: Disregarding the proverb that action without thought is like shoot- ing without aim, he went straight out and bought
a computer that proved to be totally unsuitable for his needs.
Proverb expressing similar meaning:
look before you leap.

actions speak louder than words

words What you do is more important than what you say, or what you promise to do:
“The gallant foreigner, who could not tell them how he sympathized with them, but whose actions spoke louder than words”
(F. McCullagh, With the Cossacks, 1906). The first recorded use of the proverb, in the form “actions are more precious than words,” was in a speech by the English politician John Pym in 1628. Its current form is of U.S. origin.
Proverb expressing similar mean- ing: deeds are fruits, words are but leaves.

action is worry’s worst enemy

You can banish anxiety by keeping busy and active, or by taking action to solve the problem that is worrying you: Action is worry’s worst enemy, so don’t just sit there brooding—do something!

accusing the times is but excusing our- selves

People who seek to blame the times or conditions they live in are really
trying to avoid taking the blame them- selves: It strikes me that the prime minister needs to be reminded that those who accuse the times are but excusing themselves. The prov- erb was first recorded in 1732 by Thomas Fuller in Gnomologia.
Proverb expressing similar mean- ings: he who excuses himself accuses himself.

accidents will happen in the best-regu- lated families

families No matter how careful you are, you may still do something by accident or mistake; often used to console somebody who has done such a thing: “‘Copperfield,’ said Mr. Micawber,
‘accidents will occur in the best-regulated families; and in families not regulated by
. . . the influence of Woman, in the lofty character of Wife, they must be expected with confidence, and must be borne with philosophy’” (Charles Dickens, David Copperfield, 1850). The proverb was first recorded in George Colman’s play Deuce Is in Him (1763) in the shorter form “acci- dents will happen.”
Variant of this proverb: accidents will happen in the best of families.

absence makes the heart grow fonder

Your affection for those close to you— family and friends—increases when you are parted from them: “. . . meantime he exhorts me to the exercise of patience,
‘that first of woman’s virtues,’ and desires me to remember the saying, ‘Absence makes the heart grow fonder,’ and com- fort myself with the assurance that the longer he stays away the better he shall love me when he returns” (Anne Brontë, Tenant of Wildfell Hall, 1848). The proverb was first recorded c. 1850, but the senti- ment is expressed in earlier literature—
for example, by James Howell
(1593?–1666), who wrote “Distance sometimes endears friendship, and absence sweeteneth it.” Compare Sextus Propertius (c. 54 b.c.–a.d. 2), “semper in absentes felicior aestus amantes [passion is always warmer toward absent lovers].”

Proverb expressing opposite mean-
ing: out of sight, out of mind.

the absent are always in the wrong See he who is absent is always in the wrong.

the absent are never without fault nor the present without excuse See he who is absent is always in the wrong.

absence is the mother of disillusion

disillusion A
period of separation may enable you to consider people or things more objec- tively and see them in a truer but less favorable light: While her boyfriend was away she became increasingly aware of all his little faults, which she had ignored when they were together—absence is the mother of disillusion. The proverb is recorded as a regional expression in the United States.

Indexes

Two indexes are included at the back of this dictionary:

Index of themes—a listing of proverbs under thematic headings.

Index of keywords—a listing of the nouns, adjectives, and verbs of the proverbs.

Proverbs with similar or opposite meanings

Proverbs that express similar or opposite meanings are listed at the end of entries:

actions speak louder than words

Proverb expressing similar meaning: deeds are fruits, words are but leaves.

absence makes the heart grow fonder

Proverb expressing opposite meaning: out of sight, out of mind.

Cross-references

Cross-references are given from all variant entries that are not alphabetically adja- cent to the main form:

A word is enough to the wise See A WORD TO THE WISE IS SUFFICIENT.

Variants and use of proverbs

Variants on the proverb are given after the main entry:

a word to the wise is sufficient

Variant of this proverb: a word is enough to the wise.

Alterations to the words of the proverb, shorter expressions of the proverb, or humorous applications are also shown:

once a thief always a thief

. . . Other words may be substituted for thief, such as crook, drunkard, fool, or whore, and the proverb is occasionally applied to those with enduring virtues rather than persistent vices, as in “Once a lady, always a lady.”

to err is human, to forgive divine

. . . A modern facetious variant is “To err is human, but to really foul things up requires a computer.”

Origins II

a rose by any other name would smell as sweet

. . . The proverb comes from Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet (2:2): “What’s in a name? that which we call a rose/By any other name would smell as sweet.”

Some proverbs have come into use in contemporary times. These include:

garbage in, garbage out

. . . First recorded in 1964, the proverb originally referred to computer input and output, and is still used in that context, often in the form of the acronym GIGO.

if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it

. . . The proverb was first recorded in 1977, popularized by Bert Lance, director of the
Office of Management and Budget in President Jimmy Carter’s administration.

it takes a village to raise a child

. . . Of African origin, the proverb was popularized by Hillary Clinton, wife of
President Bill Clinton, in the mid-1990s.

The “first recorded” date given is not the date of origin—most proverbs origi- nated in spoken language, and this is simply the first known written record of the proverb:

first impressions are the most lasting

. . . The proverb was first recorded in William Congreve’s play TheWay of theWorld
(1700) in the form “There is a great deal in the first impression.”

Where an early form of a proverb or other quotation is taken from a named source, the spellings of the original have been retained; in other cases spellings have been modernized for the convenience of the user:

nature abhors a vacuum

. . . Of ancient origin, the proverb was first recorded in English in 1551, in Thomas
Cranmer’s Answer to Gardiner: “Naturall reason abhorreth vacuum.”

a cat has nine lives

. . . The proverb was first recorded in 1546 in the form “A woman has nine lives like a cat.”

Origins

Many proverbs have been in use for many years:

every man is his own worst enemy

. . . The proverb was first recorded in Thomas Browne’s Religio Medici (1643).

every man is the architect of his own fortune

. . . The proverb is attributed to the Roman politician Appius Claudius Caecus, who held the post of censor from 312 b.c. to 308 b.c.

Sometimes, proverbs are quotations:

the leopard can’t change its spots

. . . The proverb is of biblical origin: “Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots?” (Jeremiah 13:23).

Examples

Examples have been chosen to demonstrate the use of a proverb. They come from
English literature or have been specially compiled for this text:

boys will be boys

Boys must be forgiven for their bad or boisterous behavior; also used ironically when grown men behave in an irresponsible or childish manner: “Aunt Sally was
a good deal uneasy; but Uncle Silas he said there warn’t no occasion to be—boys will be boys, he said, and you’ll see this one turn up in the morning all sound and right” (Mark Twain, Huckleberry Finn, 1884).

a good name is sooner lost than won

It takes a lot of time and effort to earn a good name for yourself, but you can lose it
in an instant with a single foolish act: Think carefully before you get involved in anything that is not strictly legal—remember that a good name is sooner lost than won.

Definitions

After the proverb itself comes an explanation of the meaning of the proverb:

pride goes before a fall


Arrogance and overconfidence often lead to humiliation or disaster; often used
as a warning . . .

uneasy lies the head that wears a crown

Those in power are weighed down by responsibilities, feelings of insecurity, or fears
of losing their position and can never rest easy . . .

Arrangement of proverbs

In this dictionary the proverbs are listed by strict letter-by-letter alphabetical order
of the proverb, excluding only at the beginning of a proverb, A, An, and The:

big fish eat little fish

the bigger they are, the harder they fall

a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush a bird never flew on one wing
too much of a good thing is worse than none at all toot your own horn lest the same be never tooted to the pure all things are pure
Proverbs can also be found using the keyword index, which lists all the main nouns,
adjectives, and verbs.

. Where can the following sentence best be added to the passage?

They sold quickly to a public anxious to have accurate copies of the master dramatist’s plays.
(A) At the end of paragraph 1
(B) After the word “formality” in para- graph 2
(C) After the word “performance” in para- graph 3
(D) After the phrase “William’s son” in paragraph 4

According to the passage, all of the follow- ing were involved in the publishing of the First Folio EXCEPT:

(A) Edward Blount
(B) Henry Condell
(C) William Jaggard
(D) John Danter

The passage implies that John Danter acquired the text of Romeo and Juliet by

(A) paying an actor for a copy of the script
(B) buying the copyright from Shakespeare
(C) taking notes during a performance
(D) hiring an actor to recite the lines to him

. According to the passage, how many of Shakespeare’s plays were printed in quartos?

(A) 17
(B) 18
(C) 19
(D) 20

Which word is closest in meaning to the phrase “brought out” as used in line 22?

(A) Published
(B) Printed
(C) Performed
(D) Defect

According to the passage, when were Shakespeare’s sonnets published?

(A) 1609
(B) 1610
(C) 1611
(D) 1612

Which of the following is closest in mean- ing to the phrase “dispensed with” as used in line 15?

(A) Gave away to customers
(B) Managed without something
(C) Wrote a denial to an accusation
(D) Compensated another’s loss

The passage implies that Oakley and Butler were married in

(A) 1873
(B) 1874
(C) 1875
(D) 1876

What does the word “it” as used in the phrase “by selling it” in line 10 refer to?

(A) Child
(B) Game
(C) Legend
(D) Mortgage

What was Oakley often called while performing in Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show?

(A) Little Orphan Annie
(B) Little Phoebe Ann
(C) Little Sure Shot
(D) Little Phoebe Butler

Which of the following is closest in meaning to the word “intriguing” as used in line 1?

(A) Frightening
(B) Fascinating
(C) Fabulous
(D) Funny

REFER TO THE FOLLOWING PASSAGE.

Annie Oakley, an intriguing figure in American entertainment, was a markswoman who starred in Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show, where she was often called “Little Sure Shot.” She was born in 1860 in Darke County, Ohio, and her original name was Phoebe Ann Moses. As a child, she hunted game with such success that, according to legend, by selling it in Cincinnati, Ohio, she was able to pay off the mortgage on the family farm. When she was 15 she won a shooting match in Cincinnati with Frank E. Butler, a vaudeville marks- man, and they were married a year later. For the next ten years they toured the country and performed in theaters and circuses as “Butler and Oakley.” In April
1885, Annie Oakley, now under her husband’s management, joined “Buffalo Bill” Cody’s Wild West Show. Billed as
“Miss Annie Oakley, the Peerless Lady Wing-Shot,” she was one of the show’s star attractions for sixteen years. Oakley never failed to delight her audi- ences, and her feats of marksmanship were truly incredible. At 30 paces she could split a playing card held edge-on, and she hit dimes tossed into the air. She shot cigarettes from her husband’s lips, and, when he threw a playing card into the air, she would shoot it full of holes before it touched the ground. She was a great success on the Wild West Show’s European trips.
In 1887, she was presented to Queen
Victoria, and later in Berlin she per- formed her cigarette trick with, at his insistence, Crown Prince Wilhelm (later Kaiser Wilhelm II) holding the ciga- rette. A train wreck in 1901 left her partially paralyzed for a time, but she recovered and returned to the stage to amaze audiences for many more years.

Where can the following sentence best be added to the passage?

Debates were sometimes heated, and the wealthy landowners had to de- fend their positions by arresting their opponents.
(A) At the end of paragraph 1
(B) At the end of paragraph 2
(C) After the words “peace officers” in paragraph 3
(D) After the words “important matters”
in paragraph 4

From the passage it can be inferred that by the mid-sixteenth century, the cabildo was all of the following EXCEPT:

(A) Elected by all registered voters
(B) Appointed by the king
(C) Came from the propertied class
(D) Was an inherited office

Which is closest in meaning to the word in the passage “responsibilities” as used in lines 25–26?

(A) Duties
(B) Wages
(C) Sanitation
(D) Inspections

What word does the phrase “peace offic- ers” as used in line 29 refer to?

(A) Sanitation
(B) Policing
(C) Assist
(D) Tax collectors

From the passage it can be inferred that some cabildos were

(A) poorly educated
(B) important
(C) corrupt
(D) independent

According to the passage, how many coun- cilors did Lima have?

(A) Ten
(B) Eleven
(C) Twelve
(D) Thirteen

According to the passage, how was a local judge in Hispanic America selected?

(A) He was elected by the council.
(B) He was appointed by the king.
(C) He was chosen by the town’s wealthy citizens.
(D) He was the richest man in the town.

Which of the following answer choices is closest in meaning to the word “reminis- cent” as used in lines 11–12?

(A) Suggesting something in the past
(B) Suggesting a schedule or agenda
(C) Suggesting a small village
(D) Suggesting an odor

Where was the cabildo used as a form of government?

(A) In Roman colonies
(B) In Spanish colonies
(C) In Roman provinces
(D) In Spanish provinces

Which choice does the word “paramount” as used in line 6 refer to?

(A) Fundamental
(B) Government
(C) Tradition
(D) Surrounding

REFER TO THE FOLLOWING PASSAGE.

The cabildo, which is Spanish for “municipal council,” was the fundamental unit of local government in colonial Span- ish America. Following a tradition going back to the Romans, the Spanish considered the city to be of paramount impor- tance, with the surrounding country- side directly subordinate to it.
In local affairs, each municipality in Hispanic America was governed by its cabildo, or council, in a manner reminis- cent of Castilian towns in the late Middle Ages. A council’s members and magis- trates, together with the local judge ap- pointed by the king, enjoyed considerable prestige and power. The size of a council varied but was always small. The cabildos of important cities, such as Lima and Mexico, had about 12 members.
The cabildo was in charge of all ordi- nary aspects of municipal government— e.g., policing, sanitation, taxation, the supervision of building, price and wage regulation, and the administration of justice. To assist them in these responsi- bilities, the city councilors appointed various officials, such as tax collectors, inspectors of weights and measures and the markets, and peace officers. In spite of royal decrees to promote honest and efficient city government, the cabildos were often corrupt and rapacious.
By the mid-sixteenth century, appoint- ments to cabildos were ordinarily made by the Spanish crown and sometimes became hereditary. Occasionally, the propertied class in a city elected some of the councilors. Sometimes citizens were asked to attend a open town meeting on important matters. Such open meetings
became very important to the movement for the independence of Hispanic America in the early nineteenth century.

SUMMING IT UP

Do not read the entire passage. Begin each passage by reading the first sentence in each paragraph and the last sentence of the last paragraph. You should answer the questions not in numerical order but in the following order (as they were presented in this chapter) according to kind of question: • All vocabulary questions • All questions that ask you to identify a noun or a pronoun • All questions that ask for detailed information in the passage • All questions that ask about the main idea of the passage • All questions with EXCEPT and NOT • All questions with IMPLY and INFER • All questions with black squares

However, Gershwin’s income rose, and he worked harder and harder.

Where would it best fit in the passage? Click on the square ■ to add the sentence to the passage. Look at the ideas at the end of the sentence: However, Gershwin’s income rose, and he worked harder and harder. This sentence best fits at the place marked by the second square. With the new sentence inserted, the passage would read as follows: At that time, sheet-music sales were the measure of a song’s popularity, and song pluggers had to work long hours for the music publishers who employed them. However, Gershwin’s income rose, and he worked harder and harder. As a result of his hard work, Gershwin’s piano technique improved greatly, so much so that, while still in his teens, Gershwin became known as one of the most talented pianists in New York City.

The American composer, George Gershwin

The American composer, George Gershwin, was born in 1898 in Brooklyn, New York, the son of Russian-Jewish immigrants. He began his musical education at age 11, when his family bought a second-hand piano. The piano was not bought for him, but for his older brother, Ira. However, George surprised everyone when he played a popular song, which he had taught himself by following the keys on a neighbor’s player piano, and his parents decided that George should receive lessons. ■ He studied piano with a famous music teacher at the time, Charles Hambitzer. He was so impressed with Gershwin’s talent that he gave him lessons for free. Gershwin dropped out of school at age 15 and earned a living by making piano rolls for player pianos and by playing in New York nightclubs. His most important job in this period was his work as a song plugger, who promoted interest in the sheet music of popular songs by playing and singing those songs in stores. At that time, sheet-music sales were the measure of a song’s popularity, and song pluggers had to work long hours for the music publishers who employed them. ■ As a result of his hard work, Gershwin’s piano technique improved greatly, so much so that, while still in his teens, Gershwin became known as one of the most talented pianists in New York City. As a result, he worked as an accompanist for popular singers and as a rehearsal pianist for Broadway musicals. His knowledge of jazz and popular music grew quickly, and one of his songs was included in the Broadway musical The Passing Show of 1916. George became friends to many prominent Broadway composers. He particularly admired the music of Irving Berlin whom Gershwin called “America’s Franz Schubert.” Jerome Kern, another Broadway composer, demonstrated to George how popular music was inferior to material in Broadway shows. In 1919, entertainer Al Jolson performed Gershwin’s song Swanee in the musical Sinbad. ■ The song became a hit, and Gershwin became an overnight celebrity when his song sold more than 2 million recordings and a million copies of sheet music. The following sentence can be added to the passage:

Questions with Black Squares

During the reading section of the computer-based test, you will have to answer questions with black squares. On the left side of the screen, you will see the reading passage with the following black-square mark located throughout the text: ■ On the right side of the screen, you will read a sentence followed by the question: Where in the passage would the sentence best fit in the passage? Click on the square ■ to add the sentence in the passage. When you point to the square and click the mouse, the sentence in the question will appear in the passage. This is a very difficult kind of question to answer, and you should not answer it until you have answered all other kinds of questions! To answer this kind of question, carefully read the sentence and determine the most important words, usually found at the end of the sentence. Then, scan the passage for the squares. Look at the sentences before the square and particularly after the square. You will find that in the sentence to be inserted, the words at the end contain information that introduces ideas in the beginning of the next sentence that is in the passage.

Answer the following question:

His knowledge of jazz and popular music grew quickly, and one of his songs was included in the Broadway musical The Passing Show of 1916. George became friends to many prominent Broadway composers. He particularly admired the music of Irving Berlin whom Gershwin called “America’s Franz Schubert.” Jerome Kern, another Broadway composer, demon- strated to George how popular music was inferior to material in Broadway shows. In 1919, entertainer Al Jolson performed Gershwin’s song Swanee in the musical Sinbad. The song became a hit, and Gershwin became an overnight celebrity when his song sold more than 2 million recordings and a million copies of sheet music. It can be inferred from the passage that (A) Gershwin became a famous jazz pianist in Russia. (B) Gershwin admired the music of Franz Shubert. (C) Gershwin disliked music by Kern and Berlin. (D) Gershwin never became a well-known musician. The correct answer is (B). Choices (A), (C), and (D) are not true. Gershwin compared the music of Jerome Kern, who was his friend, to that of Franz Shubert’s.

Questions with “Imply” and “Infer”

To imply something is to “communicate an idea without stating it directly.” To infer something is to “understand the idea that is being communicated by another person, even though the other person does not say it directly.” For example: Mildred said to Mark, “Harry is moving to Japan permanently, but he doesn’t know how to speak Japanese.” Mildred implied that Harry would have to learn Japanese. Mark inferred that Harry would have to learn Japanese. During the Reading section, you will be asked questions that begin in the following way: It can be inferred from the passage that . . . The author implies that . . . The passage suggests that . . . Based on the information in the passage, what can be inferred about . . . The answer to these questions is always in the form of a paraphrase. It repeats an idea found in the passage but expresses it in a different way. To answer these questions, first eliminate as a possible correct answer anything that is ridiculous and illogical. Also, eliminate any answer choice that introduces material not discussed in the passage. Answer choices that contain words such as “always,” “never,” and “completely” are usually incorrect, so you can eliminate them. If an answer choice simply repeats word-for-word a lot of material from the passage, you can eliminate that answer as well. Answer choices that are longer than the other answer choices are often a trap.

All of the following are reasons that George Gershwin became a success while he was young EXCEPT

All of the following are reasons that George Gershwin became a success while he was young EXCEPT (A) He studied piano with a famous teacher. (B) He learned about jazz and popular music while he worked as a song plugger. (C) He graduated from high school when he was only 15. (D) He worked as an accompanist for popular singers in New York. The correct answer is (C). To answer this question correctly, you have to determine the time period of each answer. In the text, in what order were the answers stated? If you scan the passage you will see that the order is (A), (C), (B), and (D). Choices (A) and (C) appear in the first paragraph, where you read that Gershwin studied with a famous teacher, which is the statement in choice (A). You also read that Gershwin’s parents bought a piano for his brother, which means that Gershwin’s parents did NOT give him a piano. Choices (B) and (D) give reasons why Gershwin became a success while he was young.

Reading Basics

lessons. He studied piano with a famous music teacher at the time, Charles Hambitzer. He was so impressed with Gershwin’s talent that he gave him lessons for free. Gershwin dropped out of school at age 15 and earned a living by making piano rolls for player pianos and by playing in New York nightclubs. His most important job in this period was his work as a song plugger, who promoted interest in the sheet music of popular songs by playing and singing those songs in stores. At that time, sheet-music sales were the measure of a song’s popularity, and song pluggers had to work long hours for the music publishers who employed them. As a result of his hard work, Gershwin’s piano technique improved greatly, so much so that, while still in his teens, Gershwin became known as one of the most talented pianists in New York City. As a result, he worked as an accompanist for popular singers and as a rehearsal pianist for Broadway musicals. His knowledge of jazz and popular music grew quickly, and one of his songs was included in the Broadway musical The Passing Show of 1916. George became friends to many prominent Broadway composers. He particularly admired the music of Irving Berlin whom Gershwin called “America’s Franz Schubert.” Jerome Kern, another Broadway composer, demonstrated to George how popular music was inferior to material in Broadway shows. In 1919, entertainer Al Jolson performed Gershwin’s song Swanee in the musical Sinbad. The song became a hit, and Gershwin became an overnight celebrity when his song sold more than 2 million recordings and a million copies of sheet music.

All About TOEFL Reading

According to the passage, why did George’s piano teacher give him lessons for free? (A) His parents were too poor to pay for the lessons. (B) The teacher was impressed with George’s talent. (C) Famous piano teachers never received money from their students. (D) Popular music was more important than classical music. The correct answer is (B). The most important words in the question are “lessons for free.” When you scan for those words, you will find them in the last sentence of the paragraph. Once again, repeat to yourself the most important strategy of answering questions in the reading section: DO NOT READ THE ENTIRE PASSAGE BEFORE YOU START ANSWERING THE QUESTIONS!

Look for the Important Words

Detail questions contain important words that will lead you to the answer. They are not words such as “George Gershwin” or “composer.” They are words that specify the information that will answer the question for you. In the question, the words “buy the piano” are the most important words to help you find the answer. Instead of reading the entire passage, scan the passage for those words. You find it at the end of the second sentence and see that the correct answer is (D). Look at the next example: The American composer, George Gershwin, was born in 1898 in Brooklyn, New York, the son of Russian-Jewish immigrants. He began his musical education at age 11, when his family bought a second-hand piano. The piano was not bought for him, but for his older brother, Ira. However, George surprised everyone when he (5) played a popular song, which he had taught himself by following the keys on a neighbor’s player piano, and his parents decided that George should receive lessons. He studied piano with a famous music teacher at the time, Charles Hambitzer. He was so impressed with Gershwin’s talent that he gave him lessons for free.

Detail Questions

You will have to answer detail questions at least twice per reading passage. In these types of questions, you are asked about specific information in the text. First, read the question to find out what information you have to find. Then, search for it in the text. The American composer, George Gershwin, was born in 1898 in Brooklyn, New York, the son of Russian-Jewish immigrants. He began his musical education at age 11, when his family bought a second-hand piano. The piano was not bought for him, but for his older brother, Ira. However, George surprised everyone when he (5) played a popular song, which he had taught himself by following the keys on a neighbor’s player piano, and his parents decided that George should receive lessons. He studied piano with a famous music teacher at the time, Charles Hambitzer. He was so impressed with Gershwin’s talent that he gave him lessons for free. According to the passage, who did the Gershwin parents buy the piano for? (A) George Gershwin (B) Charles Hambitzer (C) Other Russian immigrants (D) Ira Gershwin The correct answer is (D). In lines 3–4 above, the passage states that Gershwin’s parents bought the piano for George’s brother Ira.

Pronouns

Another kind of Reading question deals with pronouns. You will see a sentence in boldface with a highlighted pronoun, and you will be asked to identify the noun that the highlighted pronoun refers to. Look at the example: However, George surprised everyone when he played a popular song, which he had taught himself by following the keys on a neighbor’s player piano, and his parents decided that George should receive lessons. He studied piano with a famous music teacher at the time, Charles Hambitzer. He was so im- pressed with Gershwin’s talent that he gave him lessons for free. Look at the highlighted word. Click on the word or phrase in the bold text that the word refers to. (A) Piano (B) Charles Hambitzer (C) The Time (D) Gershwin The correct answer is (B). The pronoun “he” refers to a person, not to a thing (“piano” and “time” are things). “He” also does not refer to Gershwin, because Gershwin did not give lessons to himself, so “he” must refer to Charles Hambitzer.

All About TOEFL Reading

Look at the words “promoted interest in the sheet music” in the passage. Click on the word or phrase in the bold text that the words refer to. (A) Sheet music sales (B) A song’s popularity (C) Song plugger (D) Music publishers On the computer screen, you will highlight those words and click them as your choice. Which words would you choose? (A) Sheet music sales (B) A song’s popularity (C) Song plugger (D) Music publishers The correct answer is (C). The highlighted words “who promoted interest in sheet music” identify what song pluggers do.

Highlighted Sentences

Another type of vocabulary question asks you to read a boldface sentence, and choose the correct definition of the highlighted word or phrase in that sentence. Gershwin dropped out of school at age 15 and earned a living by making piano rolls for player pianos and by playing in New York nightclubs. His most important job in this period was his work as a song plugger, who promoted interest in the sheet music of popular songs by playing and singing those songs in stores. At that time, sheet-music sales were the measure of a song’s popularity, and song pluggers had to work long hours for the music publishers who employed them.

Which of the following is the closest in meaning to the word “mortgage” as used in line 11?

(A) A debt left by a deceased property owner
(B) A bank-loan contract using property as security
(C) A measurement of debts owed
(D) A piece of furniture loaned to a neighbor

Then, you compare your word to the answer choices:

(A) Graduated from college (B) Stopped attending secondary school (C) Scattered sheet music on the street (D) Dropped by his school frequently The correct answer is (B). The answer closest in meaning to “quit” or “withdrew from.” Choice (A) is incorrect, because college is not mentioned in the sentence. Choice (C) is incorrect, because the sentence is not about sheet music. Choice (D) is incorrect and a tricky one, because “dropped out” is close in sound to “dropped by,” which means visited.

Highlighted Words (II)

“Dropped out of” is an idiomatic expression, and if you are not acquainted with it, you can still figure out the correct answer by looking at the other words in the sentence. You can do this by mentally removing the words “dropped out of” from the sentence and reading the sentence this way: Gershwin school at age 15 and earned a living by making piano rolls for player pianos and by playing in New York nightclubs. Then, you fill in the blank with a verb that completes the sentence so that it is logical and grammatically correct. The other words in the sentences contain clues. Look at the words: school at age 15 and earned a living by making piano rolls for player pianos and by playing in New York nightclubs. A 15-year-old person who earns a living by playing in New York nightclubs is not likely to stay in high school at the same time. So, you choose a word or words that will finish the sentence correctly. It’s not important what the words are; they can even be words in your native language. The word or phrase you came up with is probably “quit” or “withdrew from.”

Highlighted Words (I)

You will answer three kinds of vocabulary questions. In the first kind, you will see a word or phrase highlighted in the text on the screen. This highlights the word or phrase that is the subject of the question. Look at the example. You will see the passage and the question on the monitor screen arranged this way: Gershwin dropped out of school at age 15 and earned a living by making piano rolls for player pianos and by playing in New York nightclubs. His most important job in this period was his work as a song plugger, who promoted interest in the sheet music of popular songs by playing and singing those songs in stores. At that time, sheet-music . . . Look at the word highlighted in the text. Click on the answer choice that is closest in meaning to the words dropped out of . (A) Graduated from college (B) Stopped attending secondary school (C) Scattered sheet music on the street (D) Dropped by his school frequently

Vocabulary Questions

Vocabulary questions are found in the parts of the reading passage that will be highlighted to correspond with a question. This is another reason why it is unnecessary for you to read the entire passage. See the following examples:

Questions with Except and Not

The following is an example of “Except/Not” questions: All of the following are mentioned as members of the French Impressionist group EXCEPT (A) Edgar Dégas. (B) Camille Pissaro. (C) Rembrandt van Rijn. (D) Mary Cassat. In this question, you look for the answer that names a painter who is NOT a French Impressionist. In this case, it is choice (C), Rembrandt van Rijn. Whenever you see this kind of question, remember that the answer is the one that is different from the others. Sometimes an answer has nothing to do with the main topic. In the above example, choice (C) might have been “Honore de Balzac,” who was French but not a painter. These kinds of questions will be asked at least four times per passage. Look at the following example: The American composer, George Gershwin, was born in 1898 in Brooklyn, New York, the son of Russian-Jewish immigrants. He began his musical education at age 11, when his family bought a second-hand piano. The piano was not bought for him, but for his older brother, Ira. However, George surprised everyone when he (5) played a popular song, which he had taught himself by following the keys on a neighbor’s player piano, and his parents decided that George should receive

Questions About the Main Idea of the Passage

After you have read the sentences in boldface type, answer the following question: Which of the following statements best expresses the main idea of the passage? (A) Russian immigrants in America were all musical and creative. (B) The Gershwins were school dropouts who became successes in show business. (C) George Gershwin became a famous composer before he was 30. (D) Musical training on Broadway did not prepare the Gershwins for success. TIP Main idea questions are usually asked first. The correct answer is (C). By reading those four sentences in bold type, you have not only saved yourself time, you have also learned what the passage is about. In addition, you have gotten the information necessary to answer the question.

Read the First Sentence of Each Paragraph and the Last Sentence in the Passage

In the following passage, read only the sentences in boldface. The American composer, George Gershwin, was born in 1898 in Brooklyn, New York, the son of Russian-Jewish immigrants. He began his musical education at age 11, when his family bought a second-hand piano. The piano was not bought for him, but for his older brother, Ira. However, George surprised everyone when he played a popular song, which he had taught himself by following the keys on a neighbor’s player piano, and his parents decided that George should receive lessons. He studied piano with a famous music teacher at the time, Charles Hambitzer. He was so impressed with Gershwin’s talent that he gave him lessons for free. Gershwin dropped out of school at age 15 and earned a living by making piano rolls for player pianos and by playing in New York nightclubs. His most important job in this period was his work as a song plugger, who promoted interest in the sheet music of popular songs by playing and singing those songs in stores. At that time, sheet-music sales were the measure of a song’s popularity, and song pluggers had to work long hours for the music publishers who employed them. As a result of his hard work, Gershwin’s piano technique improved greatly, so much so that, while still in his teens, Gershwin became known as one of the most talented pianists in New York City. As a result, he worked as an accompanist for popular singers and as a rehearsal pianist for Broadway musicals. His knowledge of jazz and popular music grew quickly, and one of his songs was included in the Broadway musical The Passing Show of 1916. George became friends to many prominent Broadway composers. He particularly admired the music of Irving Berlin whom Gershwin called “America’s Franz Schubert.” Jerome Kern, another Broadway composer, demonstrated to George how popular music was inferior to material in Broadway shows. In 1919, enter- tainer Al Jolson performed Gershwin’s song Swanee in the musical Sinbad. The song became a hit, and Gershwin became an overnight celebrity when his song sold more than 2 million recordings and a million copies of sheet music.

PRACTICE TEST 1: DIAGNOSTIC

Directions: Each passage is followed by a series of questions. Answer the questions based on the information you gathered from the passage. Choose the best answer to each question and answer each question based on what is stated or implied in the passage.